Adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, determiner, clause, preposition, or sentence. Adverbs typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc., answering questions such as how?, in what way?, when?, where?, and to what extent?. This function is called the adverbial function, and may be realized by single words (adverbs) or by multi-word expressions (adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses).

Adverbs are traditionally regarded as one of the parts of speech. However, modern linguists note that the term "adverb" has come to be used as a kind of "catch-all" category, used to classify words with various different types of syntactic behavior, not necessarily having much in common except that they do not fit into any of the other available categories (noun, adjective, preposition, etc.)

Clause

A clause is a grammatical unit built around a verb that typically contains a subject and a predicate. Understanding clauses is essential because they are the core building blocks of every sentence you read, write, or speak.

What makes a clause?

At minimum, a clause needs a verb (the predicate) and, in most cases, a subject — the person or thing the verb says something about. The predicate can also include objects, complements, and modifiers.

• She laughed. — subject (she) + verb (laughed)
• The manager approved the budget yesterday. — subject + verb + object + modifier

Sometimes the subject is left out. This happens regularly in imperative sentences and non-finite clauses:

• Sit down. — no visible subject, but "you" is understood
• Walking home, I noticed the shop was closed. — the -ing clause has no stated subject

Types of clauses

There are two main types:

• Independent clause (also called a main clause) — can stand on its own as a complete sentence. It contains a finite verb.

  • I missed the bus.

• Dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) — cannot stand alone and needs an independent clause to make sense.

  • Because I overslept — incomplete on its own

Combine them and you get a complex sentence:

• I missed the bus because I overslept.

A simple sentence has one independent clause. More complex sentences combine independent and dependent clauses in various ways.

Quick check: If you can remove a group of words from a sentence and it still has a subject + finite verb and makes sense on its own, that group is likely an independent clause.

Why clauses matter

Recognizing clause boundaries helps you punctuate correctly, avoid run-on sentences, and build more varied, natural-sounding writing. Once you can spot where one clause ends and another begins, sentence structure becomes much easier to manage.

Ready to practice? Try Complex Sentence for the basics, then move on to Complex Sentence: Adverbials or Participle Clauses: Shortening Sentences with -ing and Having + Past Participle to deepen your skills.

Comma

The comma is a punctuation mark that appears in several variants in different languages. It has the same shape as an apostrophe ( ' ) or single closing quotation mark in many typefaces, but it differs from them in being placed on the baseline of the text. Some typefaces render it as a small line, slightly curved or straight but inclined from the vertical, or with the appearance of a small, filled-in.

The comma is used in many contexts and languages, mainly for separating parts of a sentence such as clauses, and items in lists, particularly when there are three or more items listed. The word comma comes from the Greek, which originally meant a cut-off piece; specifically, in grammar, a short clause.

Complex Sentence

A complex sentence has one or more dependent clauses (also called subordinate clauses). Since a dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a sentence, complex sentences must also have at least one independent clause. In short, a sentence with one or more dependent clauses and at least one independent clause is a complex sentence.

A sentence with two or more independent clauses plus one or more dependent clauses is called compound-complex or complex-compound.

In addition to a subject and a verb, dependent clauses contain a subordinating conjunction or similar word. There are a large number of subordinating conjunctions in English. Some of these give the clause an adverbial function, specifying time, place, or manner. Such clauses are called adverbial clauses.

When I stepped out into the bright sunlight, from the darkness of the movie house, I had only two things on my mind. (S. E. Hinton, The Outsiders))
This complex sentence contains an adverbial clause, When I stepped out into the bright sunlight from the darkness of the movie house. The adverbial clause describes when the action of the main clause, I had only two things on my mind, took place. A relative clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase in the independent clause. In other words, the relative clause functions similar to an adjective.

• Let him who has been deceived complain. (Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote)
• You, who have never known your family, see them standing around you. (J.K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone)

A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions like a noun.

In the first example, the restrictive relative clause who has been deceived specifies or defines the meaning of him in the independent clause, Let him complain.

In the second example, the non-restrictive relative clause who have never known your family describes you in the independent clause, You see them standing around you.

A noun clause may function as the subject of a clause, or as a predicate nominative or an object.
What she had realised was that love was that moment when your heart was about to burst. (Stieg Larsson, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo)
In this sentence the independent clause contains two noun clauses.
The noun clause What she had realized serves as the subject of the verb was, and that love was that moment serves as complement. The sentence also contains a relative clause, when your heart was about to burst.

Conjunction

In grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses that are called the conjuncts of the conjoining construction. The term discourse marker is mostly used for conjunctions joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each language. In English a given word may have several senses, being either a preposition or a conjunction depending on the syntax of the sentence (for example, "after" being a preposition in "he left after the fight" versus it being a conjunction in "he left after they fought"). In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle and it may or may not stand between the items conjoined.

The definition may also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the same function, e.g. "as well as", "provided that".

A simple literary example of a conjunction: "the truth of nature, and the power of giving interest". (Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Biographia Literaria)

Conjunctions may be placed at the beginning of sentences: "But some superstition about the practice persists".

Examples

• "But she must give security that she will not marry without royal consent, if she holds her lands of the Crown, or without the consent of whatever other lord she may hold them of."—Magna Carta (1215), translated into modern English
• "But we, or our chief justice if we are not in England, are first to be informed."— Magna Carta (1215), translated into modern English
• "And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor."
• "But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively."—United States Constitution (1787)
• "And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof."—United States Constitution (1787)
• "And this power has been exercised when the last act, required from the person possessing the power, has been performed."—United States Supreme Court Judgment (1803)
• "But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate, we can not hallow this ground." Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address (1863)
• "Yet, if God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondsman's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said "the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether."Abraham Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address (1865)
• "So the inquiries can coexist, though there is much overlap between them."
• "And it appears that it was this latter factor which underlay the dismissal of the appeal by the majority. But it seems to me that the question of whether it is fair, just and reasonable is better considered against the background of whether a sufficiently proximate relationship exists."
• "But the earlier decisions in Pratap Narain Singh Deo and Valsala K. were not brought to the notice of the Court in the two later decisions in Mubasir Ahmed and Mohd. Nasir."
• "And now we have Facebook and Twitter and Wordpress and Tumblr and all those other platforms that take our daily doings and transform them into media."
• "So any modern editor who is not paranoid is a fool".
• "And strikes are protected globally, existing in many of the countries with labour laws outside the Wagner Act model."

Imperative Mood

The imperative mood is a grammatical mood that forms a command or request.

An example of a verb used in the imperative mood is the English sentence Please be quiet. Such imperatives imply a second-person subject (you), but some other languages also have first- and third-person imperatives, with the meaning of let's (do something) or let him/her/them (do something) (the forms may alternatively be called cohortative and jussive.

Imperative mood can be denoted by the glossing abbreviation. It is one of the irrealis moods.

Formation

Imperative mood is often expressed using special conjugated verb forms. Like other finite verb forms, imperatives often inflect for person and number. Second-person imperatives (used for ordering or requesting performance directly from the person being addressed) are most common, but some languages also have imperative forms for the first and third persons (alternatively called cohortative and jussive respectively).

In English, the imperative is formed using the bare infinitive form of the verb (see verbs for more details). This is usually also the same as the second-person present indicative form, except in the case of the verb to be, where the imperative is be while the indicative is are. (The present subjunctive always has the same form as the imperative, although it is negated differently – the imperative is negated using do not, as in Don't touch me!) The imperative form is understood as being in the second person (the subject pronoun you is usually omitted, although it can be included for emphasis), with no explicit indication of singular or plural.

First and third person imperatives are expressed periphrastically, using a construction with the imperative of the verb let:

• Let us (Let's) have a drink! (equivalent to a first person plural imperative)
• Let him/her/them be happy! (equivalent to a third person imperative; constructions with may are also used)

Usage

Imperatives are used principally for ordering, requesting or advising the listener to do (or not to do) something: Put down the gun!; Pass me the sauce; Don't go too near the tiger. They are also often used for giving instructions as to how to perform a task (Install the file, then restart your computer). They can sometimes be seen on signs giving orders or warnings (Stop; Give way; Do not enter).

The use of the imperative mood may be seen as impolite, inappropriate or even offensive in certain circumstances. In polite speech, orders or requests are often phrased instead as questions or statements, rather than as imperatives:

• Could you come here for a moment? (more polite than Come here!)
• It would be great if you made us a drink. (for Make us a drink!)
• I have to ask you to stop. (for Stop!)

Politeness strategies (for instance, indirect speech acts) can seem more appropriate in order not to threaten a conversational partner in their needs of self-determination and territory: the partner's negative face should not appear threatened. As well as the replacement of imperatives with other sentence types as discussed above, there also often exist methods of phrasing an imperative in a more polite manner, such as the addition of a word like please or a phrase like if you could. Imperatives are also used for speech acts whose function is essentially not to make an order or request, but to give an invitation, give permission, express a wish, make an apology, etc.:

• Come to the party tomorrow! (invitation)
• Eat the apple if you want. (permission)
• Have a nice trip! (wish)
• Pardon me. (apology)
• Visit Estonia and Armenia! (advertisement)

When written, imperative sentences are often, but not always, terminated with an exclamation mark. First person plural imperatives (cohortatives) are used mainly for suggesting an action to be performed together by the speaker and the addressee (and possibly other people): Let's go to Barbados this year; Let us pray. Third person imperatives (jussives) are used to suggest or order that a third party or parties be permitted or made to do something: Let them eat cake; Let him be executed. There is an additional imperative form that is used for general prohibitions, consisting of the word no followed by the gerund form. The best known examples are No Smoking and No Parking. This form does not have a positive form; that is, Parking by itself has no meaning unless used as a noun when it tells that parking is permitted.

English usually omits the subject pronoun in imperative sentences:

• You work hard. (indicative)
• Work hard! (imperative; subject pronoun you omitted)

However, it is possible to include the you in imperative sentences for emphasis.

English imperatives are negated using don't (as in Don't work!) This is a case of do-support as found in indicative clauses; however in the imperative it applies even in the case of the verb be (which does not use do-support in the indicative):

• You are not late. (indicative)
• Don't be late! (imperative)

It is also possible to use do-support in affirmative imperatives, for emphasis or (sometimes) politeness: Do be quiet!; Do help yourself!.

The subject you may be included for emphasis in negated imperatives as well, following don't: Don't you dare do that again!

Simple Past

The simple past, past simple or past indefinite, sometimes called the preterite, is the basic form of the past tense in Modern English. It is used principally to describe events in the past, although it also has some other uses. Regular English verbs form the simple past in -ed; however there are a few hundred irregular verbs with different forms.

The term "simple" is used to distinguish the syntactical construction whose basic form uses the plain past tense alone, from other past tense constructions which use auxiliaries in combination with participles, such as the past perfect and past progressive.

Formation

Regular verbs form the simple past end*-ed*; however there are a few hundred irregular verbs with different forms. For details see.

Most verbs have a single form of the simple past, independent of the person or number of the subject (there is no addition of -s for the third person singular as in the simple present).

However, the copula verb be has two past tense forms: was for the first and third persons singular, and were in other instances.

The form were can also be used in place of was in conditional clauses and the like; for information on this, see subjunctive.

This is the only case in modern English where a distinction in form is made between the indicative and subjunctive moods in the past tense.

Questions, other clauses requiring inversion, negations with not, and emphatic forms of the simple past use the auxiliary did.

A full list of forms is given below, using the (regular) verb help as an example:

• Basic simple past:
  • I/you/he/she/it/we/they helped
• Expanded (emphatic) simple past:
  • I/you/he/she/it/we/they did help
• Question form:
  • Did I/you/he/she/it/we/they help?
• Negative:
  • I/you/he/she/it/we/they did not (didn't) help
• Negative question:
  • Did I/you/he/she/it/we/they not help? / Didn't I/you/he/she/it/we/they help?

Usage

The simple past is used for a single event (or sequence of such events) in the past, and also for past habitual action:

• He took the money and ran.
• I visited them every day for a year.

It can also refer to a past state:

• I knew how to fight even as a child.

For action that was ongoing at the time referred to, the past progressive is generally used instead (e.g. I was cooking). The same can apply to states, if temporary (e.g. the ball was lying on the sidewalk), but some stative verbs do not generally use the progressive aspect at all, and in these cases the simple past is used even for a temporary state:

• The dog was in its kennel.

However, with verbs of sensing, it is common in such circumstances to use could see in place of saw, could hear in place of heard, etc.

• I felt cold.

If one action interrupts another, then it is usual for the interrupted (ongoing) action to be expressed with the past progressive, and the action that interrupted it to be in the simple past:

• Your mother called while you were cooking.

The simple past is often close in meaning to the present perfect.

The simple past is used when the event happened at a particular time in the past, or during a period which ended in the past (i.e. a period that does not last up until the present time).

This time frame may be explicitly stated, or implicit in the context (for example the past tense is often used when describing a sequence of past events).

• I was born in 1980.
• We turned the oven off two minutes ago.
• I came home at 6 o'clock.
• When did they get married?
• We wrote two letters this morning.
• She placed the letter on the table, sighed, and left the house.Contrast these examples with those given at.

Note also that for past actions that occurred before the relevant past time frame, the past perfect is used.

Various compound constructions exist for denoting past habitual action.

The sentence When I was young, I played football every Saturday might alternatively be phrased using used to (... I used to play ...) or using would (... I would play...).

The simple past also has some uses in which it does not refer to a past time.

• If he walked faster, he would get home earlier.
• I wish I knew what his name was.

These are generally in condition clauses and some other dependent clauses referring to hypothetical circumstances, as well as certain expressions of wish:

• He said he wanted to go on the slide.

Past Progressive

The past progressive or past continuous construction combines progressive aspect with past tense, and is formed using the past tense of be (was or were) with the present participle of the main verb.

It indicates an action that was ongoing at the past time being considered:

• At three o'clock yesterday, I was working in the garden. For stative verbs that do not use the progressive aspect, the simple past is used instead (At three o'clock yesterday we were in the garden).

The past progressive is often used to denote an action that was interrupted by an event, or for two actions taking place in parallel:

• While I was washing the dishes, I heard a loud noise.
• While you were washing the dishes, Sue was walking the dog.(Interrupted actions in the past can also sometimes be denoted using the past perfect progressive.)

The past progressive can also be used to refer to past action that occurred over a range of time and is viewed as an ongoing situation:

• I was working in the garden all day yesterday. That could also be expressed using the simple past, as I worked..., which implies that the action is viewed as a unitary event (although the effective meaning is not very different).

Past Perfect

The past perfect, sometimes called the pluperfect, combines past tense with perfect aspect; it is formed by combining had (the past tense of the auxiliary have) with the past participle of the main verb.

It is used when referring to an event that took place prior to the time frame being considered.

This time frame may be stated explicitly, as a stated time or the time of another past action:

• We had finished the job by 2 o'clock.
• He had already left when we arrived.

The time frame may also be understood implicitly from the previous or later context:

• I was eating ... I had invited Jim to the meal but he was unable to attend. (i.e. I invited him before I started eating)
• I had lost my way. (i.e. this happened prior to the time of the past events I am describing or am about to describe)

Compare He had left when we arrived (where his leaving preceded our arrival), with the form with the simple past, He left when we arrived (where his leaving was concurrent with or shortly after our arrival).

Note that unlike the present perfect, the past perfect can readily be used with an adverb specifying a past time frame for the occurrence.

For example, while it is incorrect to say I have done it last Friday (the use of last Friday, specifying the past time, would require the simple past rather than the present perfect), there is no such objection to a sentence like "I had done it the previous Friday".

The past perfect can also be used for states or repeated occurrences pertaining over a period up to a time in the past, particularly in stating "for how long" or since when". However, if the state is temporary and the verb can be used in the progressive aspect, the past perfect progressive would normally be used instead. Some examples with the plain past perfect:

• I had lived in that house for 10 years.
• The children had been in their room since lunchtime.

Past Perfect Progressive

The past perfect progressive or past perfect continuous (also known as the pluperfect progressive or pluperfect continuous) combines perfect progressive aspect with past tense.

It is formed by combining had (the past tense of auxiliary have), been (the past participle of be), and the present participle of the main verb.

Uses of the past perfect progressive are analogous to those of the present perfect progressive, except that the point of reference is in the past.

For example:

• I was tired because I had been running.
• By yesterday morning they had already been working for twelve hours.
• Among the witnesses was John Smith, who had been staying at the hotel since July 10.

This form is sometimes used for actions in the past that were interrupted by some event (compare the use of the past progressive as given above).

For example:

• I had been working on my novel when she entered the room to talk to me.

This implies that I stopped working when she came in (or had already stopped a short time before); the plain past progressive (I was working...) would not necessarily carry this implication.

If the verb in question does not use the progressive aspect, then the plain past perfect is used instead.

The past perfect progressive may also have additional specific uses similar to those of the plain past perfect.

Simple Present

The simple present or present simple is a form that combines present tense with "simple" (neither perfect nor progressive) aspect.

In the indicative mood it consists of the base form of the verb, or the -s form when the subject is third-person singular (the verb be uses the forms am, is, are). However, with non-auxiliary verbs it also has a periphrastic form consisting of do (or third-person singular does) with the bare infinitive of the main verb — this form is used in questions (and other clauses requiring inversion and negations, and sometimes for emphasis.

The principal uses of the simple present are given below.

To refer to an action or event that takes place habitually. Such uses are often accompanied by frequency adverbs and adverbial phrases such as always, often, from time to time and never.
Examples:

• I always take a shower.
• He writes for a living.

This contrasts with the present progressive, which is used for actions taking place at the present moment.

With stative verbs in senses that do not use progressive aspect, to refer to a present or general state, whether temporary, permanent or habitual. (In senses that do use progressive aspect, the present simple is used when the state is permanent or habitual.)

• You are happy.
• I know what to do.
• Denmark lies to the north of Germany.

When quoting someone or something, even if the words were spoken in the (usually very recent) past:

• The label says "External use only".
• Mary says she's ready.

To refer to a single completed action, as in recounting the events of a story in the present tense (see historical present), and in such contexts as newspaper headlines, where it replaces the present perfect:

• In Hamlet, Ophelia drowns in a stream.
• 40-year-old wins gold medal.

Sometimes to refer to an arranged future event, usually with a reference to time:

• We leave for Berlin tomorrow at 1 pm.

In providing a commentary on events as they occur, or in describing some theoretical sequence of events:

• I chop the chives and add them to the mixture.
• According to the manager's new idea, I welcome the guests and you give the presentation.

In many dependent clauses referring to the future, particularly condition clauses, clauses expressing place and time, and many relative clauses (see below):

• If he finds your sweets, he will eat them.
• We will report as soon as we receive any information.

In certain situations in a temporal adverbial clause, rather than the present progressive:

• We can see the light improving as we speak.

In colloquial English it is common to use can see, can hear for the present tense of see, hear, etc., and have got for the present tense of have (denoting possession.

See have got and can see below.

For the present subjunctive, see subjunctive.

For uses of modal verbs (which may be regarded as instances of the simple present) see modal verbs.

Present progressive

The present progressive or present continuous form combines present tense with progressive aspect. It thus refers to an action or event conceived of as having limited duration, taking place at the present time. It consists of a form of the simple present of be together with the present participle of the main verb and the ending -ing.

• We are cooking dinner now.

This often contrasts with the simple present, which expresses repeated or habitual action (We cook dinner every day). However, sometimes the present continuous is used with always, generally to express annoyance about a habitual action:

• You are always making a mess in the study.

Certain stative verbs do not use the progressive aspect, so the present simple is used instead in those cases. The present progressive can be used to refer to a planned future event:

• We are tidying the attic tomorrow.

It also appears with future reference in many condition and time clauses and other dependent clauses:

• If he*'s sleeping* when you arrive, wake him up.
• I will finish the job while the children are playing.

It can also refer to something taking place not necessarily at the time of speaking, but at the time currently under consideration, in the case of a story or narrative being told in the present tense (as mentioned above under present simple):

• The king and queen are conversing when Hamlet enters. For the possibility of a present subjunctive progressive, see English subjunctive.

Present Perfect

The present perfect (traditionally called simply the perfect) combines present tense with perfect aspect, denoting the present state of an action's being completed, that is, that the action took place before the present time. (It is thus often close in meaning to the simple past tense, although the two are not usually interchangeable.) It is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary have (namely have or has) and the past participle of the main verb.

The choice of present perfect or past tense depends on the frame of reference (period or point in time) in which the event is conceived as occurring. If the frame of reference extends to the present time, the present perfect is used. For example:

• I have written a letter this morning. (if it is still the morning)
• He has produced ten plays. (if he is still alive and professionally active)
• They have never traveled abroad. (if they are still alive and considered capable of traveling)

If the frame of reference is a time in the past, or a period that ended in the past, the past tense is used instead. For example:

• I wrote a letter this morning (it is now afternoon);
• He produced ten plays (he is now dead or his career is considered over, or a particular past time period is being referred to);
• They never traveled abroad (similarly).

See Simple past for more examples.

The simple past is generally used when the occurrence has a specific past time frame – either explicitly stated (*I wrote a book in 1995; *the water boiled a minute ago), or implied by the context (for example, in the narration of a sequence of events). It is therefore normally incorrect to write a sentence like I have written a novel yesterday; the present perfect cannot be used with an expression of past time such as yesterday.

With already or yet, traditional usage calls for the present perfect: ''Have you eaten yet? Yes, I've already eaten.* However, current informal American speech tends to use the simple past: *Did you eat yet? Yes, I ate already.''

Use of the present perfect often draws attention to the present consequences of the past action or event, as opposed to its actual occurrence. The sentence she has come probably means she is here now, while the simple past she came does not. The sentence, "Have you been to the fair?" suggests that the fair is still going on, while the sentence, "Did you go to the fair?" could mean that the fair is over. (See also been and gone below.) Some more examples:

• I have eaten. (implies that I'm no longer hungry)
• We have made the dinner. (implies that the dinner is now ready to eat)
• The weather has gotten cloudier. (implies that it is now more cloudy than previously)

It may also refer to an ongoing state or habitual action, particularly in saying for how long, or since when, something is the case. For example:

• I have lived in Paris for five years.
• He has held the record since he won his Olympic gold.
• We have eaten breakfast together every morning since our honeymoon.

This implies that I still live in Paris, that he still holds the record and that we still eat together every morning (although the first sentence may also refer to some unspecified past period of five years).

When the circumstance is temporary, the present perfect progressive is often appropriate in such sentences (see below); however, if the verb is one that does not use the progressive aspect, the basic present perfect is used in that case too:

• Amy has been on the swing for ten minutes.

The present perfect may refer to a habitual circumstance, or a circumstance being part of a theoretical or story narrative being given in the present tense (provided the circumstance is of an event's having taken place previously):

• Whenever I get home, John has usually already arrived.
• According to the plan, the speeches have already been given when the cake is brought out.

The present perfect may also be used with future reference, instead of the future perfect, in those dependent clauses where future occurrence is denoted by present tense. For example:

• When you have written it, show it to me.

Present Perfect Progressive

The present perfect progressive (or present perfect continuous) construction combines some of this perfect progressive aspect with present tense.

It is formed with the present tense of have (have or has), the past participle of be (been), and the present participle of the main verb and the ending "-ing"

This construction is used for ongoing action in the past that continues right up to the present or has recently finished:

• I have been writing this paper all morning.
• Why are his eyes red? He has been crying.

It is frequently used when stating for how long, or since when, something is the case:

• She has been working here since 1997.
• How long have you been sitting there?
• They have been arguing about it for two weeks.

In these sentences the actions are still continuing, but it is the past portion of them that is being considered, and so the perfect aspect is used. (A sentence without perfect aspect, such as I am sitting here for three hours, implies an intention to perform the action for that length of time.)

With stative verbs that are not used in the progressive, and for situations that are considered permanent, the present perfect (nonprogressive) is used instead.

Punctuation

Punctuation in the English language helps the reader to understand a sentence through visual means other than just the letters of the alphabet. English punctuation has always had two complementary aspects: on the one hand, phonological punctuation linked to how the sentence can be read aloud, particularly to pausing; and on the other hand, grammatical punctuation linked to the structure of the sentence. In popular discussion of language, incorrect punctuation is often seen as an indication of lack of education and of a decline of standards.

Present

Present tense is used, in principle, to refer to circumstances that exist at the present time (or over a period that includes the present time) and general truths. However the same forms are quite often also used to refer to future circumstances, as in "He's coming tomorrow" (hence this tense is sometimes referred to as present-future or nonpast). For certain grammatical contexts where the present tense is the standard way to refer to the future, e.g., conditional sentences and dependent clauses. It is also possible for the present tense to be used when referring to no particular real time (as when telling a story), or when recounting past events (the historical present, particularly common in headline language). The present perfect intrinsically refers to past events, although it can be considered to denote primarily the resulting present situation rather than the events themselves.

The present tense has two moods, indicative and subjunctive; when no mood is specified, it is often the indicative that is meant. In a present indicative construction, the finite verb appears in its base form, or in its -s form if its subject is third-person singular. (The verb be has the forms am, is, are, while the modal verbs do not add -s for third-person singular.)

Past

Past tense forms express circumstances existing at some time in the past, although they also have certain uses in referring to hypothetical situations (as in some conditional sentences, dependent clauses and expressions of wish). They are formed using the finite verb in its preterite (simple past) form.

Certain uses of the past tense may be referred to as subjunctives; however the only distinction in verb conjugation between the past indicative and past subjunctive is the possible use of were in the subjunctive in place of was.

Note also that in certain contexts past events are reported using the present perfect.

Future

English is sometimes described as having a future tense, although since future time is not specifically expressed by verb inflection, some grammarians identify only two tenses (present or present-future, and past). The English "future" usually refers to a periphrastic form involving the auxiliary verb will (or sometimes shall when used with a first-person subject). There also exist other ways of referring to future circumstances, including the going to construction, and the use of present tense forms. For particular grammatical contexts where the present tense substitutes for the future, see conditional sentences and dependent clauses. For discussion and comparison of the various ways of making future reference in English, see going-to future.

For specific uses of future constructions formed with will/shall, see future.

Future-in-the-past

A "future-in-the-past" tense (or form) is sometimes referred to. This takes essentially the same form as the conditional, that is, it is made using the auxiliary would (or sometimes should in the first person).

This form has a future-in-the-past meaning in sentences such as She knew that she would win the game. Here the sentence as a whole refers to some particular past time, but would win refers to a time in the future relative to that past time.

Perfect

The perfect aspect is used to denote the circumstance of an action's being complete at a certain time. It is expressed using a form of the auxiliary verb have (appropriately conjugated for tense etc.) together with the past participle of the main verb: She has eaten it; We had left; When will you have finished?

Perfect forms can also be used to refer to states or habitual actions, even if not complete, if the focus is on the time period before the point of reference (We had lived there for five years). If such a circumstance is temporary, the perfect is often combined with progressive aspect.

The implications of the present perfect (that something occurred prior to the present moment) are similar to those of the simple past, although the two forms are generally not used interchangeably – the simple past is used when the time frame of reference is in the past, while the present perfect is used when it extends to the present.

For all uses of specific perfect constructions, see the sections on the present perfect, past perfect, future perfect and conditional perfect.

By using nonfinite forms of the auxiliary have, perfect aspect can also be marked on infinitives (as in should have left and expect to have finished working), and on participles and gerunds (as in having seen the doctor).

Note that while all of the constructions referred to here are commonly referred to as perfect (based on their grammatical form), some of them, particularly nonpresent and nonfinite instances, might not be considered truly expressive of the perfect aspect. This applies particularly when the perfect infinitive is used together with modal verbs: for example, he could not have been a genius might be considered (based on its meaning) to be a past tense of he cannot/could not be a genius; such forms are considered true perfect forms by some linguists but not others.

Perfect Progressive

The perfect and progressive (continuous) aspects can be combined, usually in referring to the completed portion of a continuing action or temporary state: I have been working for eight hours. Here a form of the verb have (denoting the perfect) is used together with been (the past participle of be, denoting the progressive) and the present participle of the main verb.

In the case of the stative verbs, which do not use progressive aspect, the plain perfect form is normally used in place of the perfect progressive: I've been here for half an hour (not I've been being here...).

Simple

"Simple" forms of verbs are those appearing in constructions not marked for either progressive or perfect aspect (I go, I don't go, I went, I will go, etc., but not I'm going or I have gone).

Simple constructions normally denote a single action (perfective aspect), as in Brutus killed Caesar, a repeated action (habitual aspect), as in I go to school, or a relatively permanent state, as in We live in Dallas. They may also denote a temporary state (imperfective aspect), in the case of stative verbs that do not use progressive forms.

B1 | Intermediate

B1 is the intermediate level of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). It marks the point where you move beyond survival English and start expressing yourself with real independence — describing experiences, explaining opinions, and handling everyday situations without a script.

What a B1 user can do

At this level, you're expected to:

• Understand the main points of clear, standard speech and writing on familiar topics — work, school, travel, hobbies.
• Handle most travel situations in English-speaking environments.
• Produce simple connected text on topics you know or care about.
• Describe experiences, events, hopes, and plans, and give brief reasons and explanations for your opinions.
• Communicate in routine tasks that require a straightforward exchange of information.

What B1 grammar looks like

B1 is where grammar starts to get more layered. You're not just forming basic sentences anymore — you're combining ideas, using different tenses with more precision, and starting to handle structures like the passive voice, modal verbs for necessity and possibility, and gerunds vs. infinitives. You're also expected to build complex sentences with linking words and dependent clauses.

Typical B1 grammar areas include:

• Future tenses — distinguishing will, going to, and the present continuous for future plans
• Passive voice — The report was written yesterday.
• Modal verbs — You should apply early. / She might be late.
• Used to — I used to live in Berlin.
• Verb patterns — knowing whether a verb takes a gerund, an infinitive, or both (I enjoy reading vs. I decided to leave)

What B1 doesn't mean

B1 speakers still hesitate, make grammatical errors, and sometimes struggle with less familiar topics. That's normal. The key difference from A2 is that you can keep a conversation going and get your point across even when things aren't perfect. The step up to B2 involves handling more abstract topics, understanding nuance, and producing more complex, accurate language.

Self-check: Can you tell a friend about a recent trip — what happened, what you liked, and what you'd do differently — without switching to your native language? If yes, you're likely operating at B1 or above.

Ready to find out where you stand? Try Are you B1/Intermediate? Test your English CEFR Level to figure out!, then build your skills with challenges like Basics. Passive Voice, Basics. Modal verbs, and Used to.

B2 | Upper Intermediate

B2, or Upper Intermediate, is the fourth level on the CEFR scale. It marks the point where you move from "getting by" to genuinely comfortable communication — handling complex topics, expressing nuanced opinions, and understanding most of what you read or hear in real-world contexts.

What a B2 user can do

At this level, you're expected to:

• Understand complex texts on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in your own field.
• Follow extended speech and lectures, even when the structure isn't entirely clear, as long as the topic is reasonably familiar.
• Interact fluently and spontaneously enough that conversations with native speakers flow naturally — without strain on either side.
• Produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects, using connectors and cohesive devices to build well-structured arguments.
• Explain and defend a viewpoint on a topical issue, weighing the advantages and disadvantages of different options.
• Recognize implicit meaning — reading between the lines in demanding, longer texts.

What B2 grammar looks like in practice

B2 is where grammar stops being about isolated rules and starts being about flexibility and precision. You're expected to control structures like:

• Advanced conditionals and mixed conditionals — moving beyond simple if-clauses to express hypothetical and counterfactual meaning.
• Passive voice in varied tenses and contexts, not just present and past simple.
• Reported speech with correct sequence of tenses, including backshifting and reporting verbs.
• Participle clauses and the distinction between participles and gerunds.
• Comparative and superlative structures beyond basic -er/-est, including double comparatives and qualifying expressions.

Errors still happen at B2, but they rarely cause misunderstanding. The goal is controlled, flexible use of language across social, academic, and professional settings.

How B2 fits in the CEFR progression

B2 builds directly on the foundations of B1 (Intermediate) and prepares you for C1 (Advanced). Many university entrance exams, professional certifications, and immigration requirements target B2 as the minimum standard.

Self-check: If you can read a newspaper editorial, follow most of a TED talk without subtitles, and write a clear essay arguing a position — you're likely operating at B2.

Ready to test yourself? Try Is your English level B2/Upper Intermediate? or practise specific B2 grammar with challenges like Basics. Advanced Conditionals And "wish", Basics. Passive Voice, and Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Speech.

Difficulty: Medium

Medium difficulty. Difficulty levels represent author's opinion about how hard a question or challenge is.